目錄
Japanese academic writing is a style commonly used in papers, reports, research abstracts, and formal explanations. The difficulty lies not simply in replacing 「です・ます」 with 「である」, but in turning sentences into arguments that have a defined scope, a clear basis, and visible inferential relationships. Expressions such as 「〜と考えられる」「〜において」「〜に基づき」 may look merely more formal, but in practice they respectively serve to qualify judgments, define the scope of discussion, and state the basis for a claim. When reading only the Chinese translation, it is easy to understand every word yet still miss what the sentence is actually doing.
What Is Japanese Academic Writing? It Is More Than Simply Making Writing More Formal
The core of Japanese academic writing is to transform sentences from “everyday conversation” into “arguments that can be discussed.” In everyday Japanese, you can say 「これは大事だと思います」, while academic writing more often uses 「これは重要であると考えられる」. The latter pushes personal judgment into the background, making the sentence appear as a conclusion formed on the basis of evidence and inference.
Without understanding Japanese academic writing, it is easy to read a text too conversationally. For example, when seeing 「〜とされる」, you may translate it simply as “is considered” without noticing that it avoids making a personal assertion; when seeing 「〜において」, you may translate it only as “in” without recognizing that it establishes the scope of discussion. The point of these expressions is not to sound sophisticated, but to give each sentence a clear position within the argument.
Basic Structure of Japanese Academic Writing: 「である調」, Objective Inference, and Logical Connections
Japanese academic writing generally consists of three levels. The first is changing sentence endings to 「である調」 so that the style is more suitable for reports and papers. The second is using 「〜と考えられる」「〜とされる」 to reduce personal subjectivity. The third is using 「〜において」「〜に基づき」「したがって」 to make the relationships between sentences clear.
| TypeCommon ExpressionsFunctionSense in Chinese | |||
| Style endings | である、であった、ではない | Establishes a written argumentative tone | is, is not |
| Objective inference | と考えられる、とされる、と思われる | Avoids personal assertions | can be considered, is generally considered |
| Scope setting | において、に関して、について | Limits the scope of discussion | in, regarding |
| Basis and connection | に基づき、したがって、一方で | States the basis and logic | based on, therefore, on the other hand |
Usage ① of “Japanese Academic Writing”｜Formal Argumentation with 「である調」
「である調」 is the most basic stylistic feature of Japanese academic writing. Unlike 「です・ます」, which maintains a polite distance from the reader, it presents content through objective statements. Papers, reports, and encyclopedic explanations commonly use 「である」「ではない」「であった」. These endings are not more advanced; rather, they turn writing into a form of explanation and argumentation.
- Example: 敬語は人間関係を調整する表現である。
Kana: けいごは にんげんかんけいを ちょうせいする ひょうげんである。
Translation is an expression used to regulate interpersonal relationships. - Example: この結果は偶然ではない。
Kana: このけっかは ぐうぜんではない。
Translation result is not accidental. - Example: 調査の対象は大学生であった。
Kana: ちょうさの たいしょうは だいがくせいであった。
Translation subjects of the survey were university students.
Usage ② of “Japanese Academic Writing”｜Objective Inference and Qualified Judgment
Academic writing tends to avoid making judgments sound too much like personal impressions, so expressions such as 「〜と考えられる」「〜とされる」「〜と思われる」 are frequently used. These expressions turn judgments into inferences or generally accepted views, leaving room for discussion. They do not avoid conclusions; rather, they make conclusions appear grounded and open to challenge or supplementation.
- Example: この変化は社会的要因によるものと考えられる。
Kana: このへんかは しゃかいてきよういんによるものと かんがえられる。
Translation change can be considered to be caused by social factors. - Example: この表現は近年広く使われるようになったとされる。
Kana: このひょうげんは きんねん ひろく つかわれるようになったとされる。
Translation expression is generally considered to have become widely used in recent years. - Example: この傾向は今後も続くと思われる。
Kana: このけいこうは こんごも つづくと おもわれる。
Translation trend is expected to continue in the future.
Usage ③ of “Japanese Academic Writing”｜Scope, Basis, and Logical Connections
Japanese academic writing places great importance on relationships between sentences, so expressions such as 「〜において」「〜に基づき」「したがって」 are frequently used. These expressions are not simply decorative; they tell the reader where the scope of discussion lies, what a judgment is based on, and how one sentence is derived from another. Once you understand these connectors, the structure of the text becomes much clearer.
- Example: 日本語教育において、文脈の理解は重要である。
Kana: にほんごきょういくにおいて、ぶんみゃくの りかいは じゅうようである。
Translation Japanese-language education, understanding context is important. - Example: 先行研究に基づき、分析の方法を決定した。
Kana: せんこうけんきゅうに もとづき、ぶんせきの ほうほうを けっていした。
Translation on previous research, the method of analysis was determined. - Example: 回答数は十分ではなかった。したがって、結果の解釈には注意が必要である。
Kana: かいとうすうは じゅうぶんではなかった。したがって、けっかの かいしゃくには ちゅういが ひつようである。
Translation number of responses was not sufficient. Therefore, caution is needed when interpreting the results.
How Does Japanese Academic Writing Differ from Everyday Written Japanese? Comparing Endings, Judgments, and Connectors
The difference between Japanese academic writing and everyday written Japanese lies in the greater emphasis the former places on verifiability and logical relationships. Everyday written language can be friendly and express feelings; academic writing, by contrast, avoids excessive emotional wording and builds sentences through definitions, evidence, comparisons, and inference. Not every formal text needs to be difficult, but academic writing deliberately reduces personal coloring.
| Comparison ItemEveryday Written JapaneseJapanese Academic WritingCommon Mistakes | |||
| Endings | です・ます | である | Mixing the two styles too freely |
| Judgment | と思います | と考えられる | Sounds too much like a personal reflection |
| Basis | 〜から | 〜に基づき | Insufficient explanation of evidence |
| Connection | でも、だから | 一方で、したがって | Too many conversational connectors |
▌Do Not Mix 「です・ます調」 and 「である調」: How to Rewrite for Stylistic Consistency
❌ Unnatural:本稿の目的は語用論を説明することです。この点は重要である。
✅ Natural:本稿の目的は語用論を説明することである。この点は重要である。
The writing style should remain consistent within the same paragraph; otherwise, the text can feel like a mixture of an oral presentation and an academic paper.
▌Why Is 「と思います」 Too Subjective? Using 「と考えられる」 to Express Judgment
❌ Conversational:この結果は社会的要因によると思います。
✅ Written:この結果は社会的要因によるものと考えられる。
Academic writing often turns personal judgment into objective inference, making the sentence more suitable for discussion.
▌How Do You Change 「だから」 to 「したがって」? Causal Connections in Formal Argumentation
❌ Conversational:回答数が少なかった。だから注意が必要だ。
✅ Written:回答数が少なかった。したがって、解釈には注意が必要である。
「したがって」 clearly shows an inferential relationship and is more suitable for formal writing than 「だから」.
How Do You Write Japanese University Reports and Paper Abstracts? Sentence Patterns for Research Objectives, Methods, and Conclusions
Japanese academic writing in university reports and paper abstracts often focuses on research objectives, methods, results, and limitations. The purpose is not to make sentences difficult, but to let readers see what role each sentence plays in the argument. When writing a report, you can first build the framework with 「本稿では」「〜を対象とする」「〜と考えられる」 and then add the details.
▌Situation ①｜Using 「本稿では」 to Explain the Report Topic and Scope of Research
A：本稿では、日本語の敬語表現について考察する。
ほんこうでは、にほんごの けいごひょうげんについて こうさつする。
This paper examines Japanese honorific expressions.
B：テーマが明確で、書面語として自然ですね。
テーマが めいかくで、しょめんごとして しぜんですね。
The topic is clear, and it sounds natural as written language.
📌 Grammar Point:「本稿では」 is often used to define the scope of a text, while 「考察する」 sounds more like a formal report than 「見ていく」.
▌Situation ②｜Using 「に基づき」 to State the Research Basis and Analytical Method
A：先行研究に基づき、例文を分類した。
せんこうけんきゅうに もとづき、れいぶんを ぶんるいした。
The example sentences were classified based on previous research.
B：根拠が示されているので、説得力があります。
こんきょが しめされているので、せっとくりょくが あります。
Because the basis is clearly presented, the argument is persuasive.
📌 Grammar Point:「に基づき」 states the basis for an analysis and is a common structural expression in academic writing.
▌Situation ③｜Using 「と考えられる」 to Present a Qualified Conclusion
A：この結果から、敬語使用には場面差があると考えられる。
このけっかから、けいごしようには ばめんさが あると かんがえられる。
Based on these results, it can be considered that the use of honorifics varies by situation.
B：断定しすぎず、論文らしい表現です。
だんていしすぎず、ろんぶんらしい ひょうげんです。
It does not overstate the conclusion and sounds appropriate for an academic paper.
📌 Grammar Point:「と考えられる」 leaves room for inference in the conclusion, making it suitable for research abstracts and analytical paragraphs.
Cultural Notes:
- Japanese university reports often place importance on 「論理の一貫性」, or logical consistency. The goal is not simply to make sentences sound polished, but to ensure that the objective, method, results, and conclusion connect properly.
- 「である調」 does not mean making every sentence rigid. Its function is to maintain stylistic consistency and make the text read as a formal argument.
- Academic writing often avoids overly strong personal tones. Expressions such as 「と考えられる」「と思われる」 allow conclusions to remain open to discussion.
How Should Japanese “Academic Writing” Be Understood in Comparison with Korean 「학술 문어체」?
◆ Similar Grammar: Korean Academic Written Forms 「-다／-라고 볼 수 있다／에 기반하다」
Korean academic writing also avoids overly conversational sentence endings and commonly uses the 「-다」 style, 「-라고 볼 수 있다」 to express that something “can be viewed as,” and 「에 기반하다」 to mean “based on.” Like Japanese, formal Korean writing also turns personal impressions into objective argumentation.
- *Example:**이 표현은 사회적 관계를 조절하는 기능을 한다.
- *Example:**이 결과는 사회적 요인에 의한 것으로 볼 수 있다.
- *Example:**선행 연구에 기반하여 분석 기준을 설정했다.
◆ Core Differences from “Japanese Academic Writing”:
Japanese academic writing often maintains objective distance through 「である調」 and 「と考えられる」, while Korean frequently creates a formal tone through the 「-다」 style and Sino-Korean vocabulary. Neither language is simply making sentences more difficult; both are making arguments more open to examination.
Japanese academic writing can first be evaluated from three points: whether the style is consistent, whether judgments have a basis, and whether sentences connect logically. 「である」 establishes the argumentative tone, 「と考えられる」 preserves reasonable room for inference, while 「において」「に基づき」「したがって」 clearly state the scope, basis, and conclusion. When reading papers, focusing first on the function of these expressions usually makes it easier to grasp the position of a paragraph than translating word by word. When writing reports, it also helps prevent formal writing from turning into conversational personal reflections.
FAQs
Japanese academic writing is a written style used in formal texts such as papers, reports, and research abstracts. It commonly uses 「である調」, objective inference, and logical connectors, making the text function more like an argument than a conversation.
「です・ます」 carries a polite tone and is suitable for speeches, explanations, and general writing, while 「である」 is more commonly used in academic texts, reports, and formal argumentation. It is best not to mix the two styles arbitrarily within the same text.
「と思います」 sounds more like a personal opinion, while 「と考えられる」 presents the judgment as an objective inference. The latter is generally used in papers and reports to leave room for discussion in the conclusion.
Their meanings can be similar in some contexts, but their registers differ. 「において」 is more formal and is often used to define the scope of discussion, while 「で」 is more neutral and can be used in both everyday language and general writing.
You can begin with three fixed patterns: use 「〜である」 for definitions, 「〜と考えられる」 for inference, and 「〜に基づき」 for stating a basis. Practicing these three patterns in report sentences first will help keep the style more stable.